Voltaire Wikipedia. Franois Marie Arouet French f. November 1. 69. 4 3. May 1. 77. 8, known by his nom de plume. Voltaire 1French vl. German_IntroductoryGerman_Kontakte7e_Tschirner_AssignmentBuilder-800x466.jpg' alt='Deux Mondes 6Th Edition Isbn Book' title='Deux Mondes 6Th Edition Isbn Book' />French. Enlightenment writer, historian, and philosopher famous for his wit, his attacks on the established Catholic Church, and his advocacy of freedom of religion, freedom of speech, and separation of church and state. Voltaire was a versatile and prolific writer, producing works in almost every literary form, including plays, poems, novels, essays, and historical and scientific works. He wrote more than 2. He was an outspoken advocate of civil liberties, despite the risk this placed him in under the strict censorship laws of the time. As a satiricalpolemicist, he frequently made use of his works to criticize intolerance, religious dogma, and the French institutions of his day. BiographyeditFranois Marie Arouet was born in Paris, the youngest of the five children of Franois Arouet 1. Un libro del latn liber, libri es una obra impresa, manuscrita o pintada en una serie de hojas de papel, pergamino, vitela u otro material, unidas por un lado es. Klip En Klei, Marthinus Versfeld 9781606641439 1606641433 Robin, Frances Hodgson Burnett, Hamilton Williamson 9781436797948 1436797942 Cartas. In the fall of 1735, Voltaire was visited by Francesco Algarotti, who was preparing a book about Newton in Italian. Partly inspired by the visit, the Marquise. August 1. 64. 9 1 January 1. Marie Marguerite Daumard c. July 1. 70. 1, whose family was on the lowest rank of the French nobility. Some speculation surrounds Voltaires date of birth, because he claimed he was born on 2. February 1. 69. 4 as the illegitimate son of a nobleman, Gurin de Rochebrune or Roquebrune. Two of his older brothersArmand Franois and Robertdied in infancy and his surviving brother, Armand, and sister Marguerite Catherine were nine and seven years older, respectively. Nicknamed Zozo by his family, Voltaire was baptized on 2. November 1. 69. 4, with Franois de Castagnre, abb de Chteauneuf fr, and Marie Daumard, the wife of his mothers cousin, standing as godparents. He was educated by the Jesuits at the Collge Louis le Grand 1. Latin, theology, and rhetoric 7 later in life he became fluent in Italian, Spanish, and English. By the time he left school, Voltaire had decided he wanted to be a writer, against the wishes of his father, who wanted him to become a lawyer. Voltaire, pretending to work in Paris as an assistant to a notary, spent much of his time writing poetry. When his father found out, he sent Voltaire to study law, this time in Caen, Normandy. Nevertheless, he continued to write, producing essays and historical studies. Nellcor Warm Touch Manual more. Voltaires wit made him popular among some of the aristocratic families with whom he mixed. In 1. 71. 3, his father obtained a job for him as a secretary to the new French ambassador in the Netherlands, the marquis de Chteauneuf fr, the brother of Voltaires godfather. At The Hague, Voltaire fell in love with a French Protestant refugee named Catherine Olympe Dunoyer known as Pimpette. Their scandalous affair was discovered by de Chteauneuf and Voltaire was forced to return to France by the end of the year. Voltaire was imprisoned in the Bastille from 1. May 1. 71. 7 to 1. April 1. 71. 8 in a windowless cell with ten foot thick walls. Most of Voltaires early life revolved around Paris. From early on, Voltaire had trouble with the authorities for critiques of the government. These activities were to result in two imprisonments and a temporary exile to England. One satirical verse, in which Voltaire accused the Rgent of incest with his own daughter, led to an eleven month imprisonment in the Bastille. The Comdie Franaise had agreed in January 1. November 1. 71. 8, seven months after his release. Its immediate critical and financial success established his reputation. Both the Rgent and King George I of Great Britain presented Voltaire with medals as a mark of their appreciation. He mainly argued for religious tolerance and freedom of thought. He campaigned to eradicate priestly and aristo monarchical authority, and supported a constitutional monarchy that protects peoples rights. Adopts the name VoltaireeditThe author adopted the name Voltaire in 1. Bastille. Its origin is unclear. It is an anagram of AROVET LI, the Latinized spelling of his surname, Arouet, and the initial letters of le jeune the young. According to a family tradition among the descendants of his sister, he was known as le petit volontaire determined little thing as a child, and he resurrected a variant of the name in his adult life. The name also reverses the syllables of Airvault, his familys home town in the Poitou region. Richard Holmes2. Voltaire would have intended it to also convey its connotations of speed and daring. These come from associations with words such as voltige acrobatics on a trapeze or horse, volte face a spinning about to face ones enemies, and volatile originally, any winged creature. Arouet was not a noble name fit for his growing reputation, especially given that names resonance with rouer to be beaten up and rou a dbauch. In a letter to Jean Baptiste Rousseau in March 1. Voltaire concludes by asking that, if Rousseau wishes to send him a return letter, he do so by addressing it to Monsieur de Voltaire. A postscript explains Jai t si malheureux sous le nom dArouet que jen ai pris un autre surtout pour ntre plus confondu avec le pote Roi, I was so unhappy under the name of Arouet that I have taken another, primarily so as to cease to be confused with the poet Roi. This probably refers to Adenes le Roi, and the oi diphthong was then pronounced like modern ouai, so the similarity to Arouet is clear, and thus, it could well have been part of his rationale. Indeed, Voltaire is known also to have used at least 1. La Henriade and MariamneeditVoltaires next play, Artmire de, set in ancient Macedonia, opened on 1. February 1. 72. 0. It was a flop and only fragments of the text survive. He instead turned to an epic poem about Henri IV of France that he had begun in early 1. Denied a licence to publish, in August 1. Voltaire headed north to find a publisher outside France. On the journey, he was accompanied by his mistress, Marie Marguerite de Rupelmonde, a young widow. At Brussels, Voltaire and Rousseau met up for a few days, before Voltaire and his mistress continued northwards. A publisher was eventually secured in The Hague. In the Netherlands, Voltaire was struck and impressed by the openness and tolerance of Dutch society. On his return to France, he secured a second publisher in Rouen, who agreed to publish La Henriade clandestinely. After Voltaires recovery from a month long smallpox infection in November 1. Paris and distributed. While the poem was an instant success, Voltaires new play, Mariamne, was a failure when it first opened in March 1. Heavily reworked, it opened at the Comdie Franaise in April 1. It was among the entertainments provided at the wedding of Louis XV and Marie Leszczyska in September 1. Great BritaineditIn early 1. French nobleman, the chevalier de Rohan Chabot, taunted Voltaire about his change of name, and Voltaire retorted that his name would be honoured while de Rohan would dishonour his. Infuriated, de Rohan arranged for Voltaire to be beaten up by thugs a few days later. Seeking compensation, redress, or revenge, Voltaire challenged de Rohan to a duel, but the aristocratic de Rohan family arranged for Voltaire to be arrested and imprisoned in the Bastille on 1. April 1. 72. 6 without a trial or an opportunity to defend himself. Fearing an indefinite prison sentence, Voltaire suggested that he be exiled to England as an alternative punishment, which the French authorities accepted. On 2 May, he was escorted from the Bastille to Calais, where he was to embark for Britain. In England, Voltaire lived largely in Wandsworth, with acquaintances including Everard Fawkener. From December 1. 72. June 1. 72. 8 he lodged at Maiden Lane, Covent Garden, now commemorated by a plaque, to be nearer to his British publisher. Libro Wikipedia, la enciclopedia libre. Un libro del latnliber, libri es una obra impresa, manuscrita o pintada en una serie de hojas de papel, pergamino, vitela u otro material, unidas por un lado es decir, encuadernadas y protegidas con tapas, tambin llamadas cubiertas. Un libro puede tratar sobre cualquier tema. Segn la definicin de la Unesco,1 un libro debe poseer 2. Tambin se llama libro a una obra de gran extensin publicada en varias unidades independientes, llamados tomos o volmenes. Otras veces se llama tambin libro a cada una de las partes de una obra, aunque fsicamente se publiquen todas en un mismo volumen ejemplo Libros de la Biblia. Hoy en da, no obstante, esta definicin no queda circunscrita al mundo impreso o de los soportes fsicos, dada la aparicin y auge de los nuevos formatos documentales y especialmente de la World Wide Web. El libro digital o libro electrnico, conocido como e book, est viendo incrementado su uso en el mundo del libro y en la prctica profesional bibliotecaria y documental. Adems, el libro tambin puede encontrarse en formato audio, en cuyo caso se denomina audiolibro. Desde los orgenes, la humanidad ha tenido que hacer frente a una cuestin fundamental la forma de preservar y transmitir su cultura, es decir, sus creencias y conocimientos, tanto en el espacio como en el tiempo. El planteamiento de esta cuestin supone por un lado, determinar la forma de garantizar la integridad intelectual del contenido de la obra y la conservacin del soporte en el que fue plasmada, y por otro, encontrar el medio por el cual se mantendr inalterada la intencin o finalidad para la cual se concibi. Los orgenes de la historia del libro se remontan a las primeras manifestaciones pictricas de nuestros antepasados, la pintura rupestre del hombre del paleoltico. Con un simbolismo, posiblemente cargado de significados mgicos, estas pinturas muestran animales, caceras y otras escenas cotidianas del entorno natural del hombre antiguo, que trataba de dominar las fuerzas adversas de la naturaleza capturando su esencia mediante su representacin. Son el ms antiguo precedente de los primeros documentos impresos de que se tiene memoria. Comunicacin oral y formas rudimentariaseditarLas seales gestuales fueron la primera forma de expresar y transmitir mensajes. La palabra hablada es la manera ms antigua de contar historias. Mediante frmulas de valor mnemotcnico2 se estructuraban narraciones, que pasaban de generacin en generacin como valiosa herencia cultural de los ms diversos grupos humanos. Dichas reglas mnemotcnicas ayudaban tanto a la memorizacin como a la difusin de los relatos. Es el caso de los poemas homricos, que han merecido valiosos estudios sobre el particular. Posiblemente, gran parte de las tradiciones y leyendas han tenido semejante inicio. Esta transmisin oral tena el inconveniente de los ruidos que deformaban el mensaje. La mayora de las veces era el narrador rapsoda, aeda, juglar quien en funcin de sus intereses la deformaba de una u otra forma. La escrituraeditarCuando los sistemas de escritura fueron inventados en las antiguas civilizaciones, el hombre utiliz diversos soportes de escritura tablillas de arcilla, ostracon, placas de hueso o marfil, tablas de madera, papiros, tablillas enceradas, planchas de plomo, pieles curtidas, etc. La escritura fue el resultado de un proceso lento de evolucin con diversos pasos imgenes que reproducan objetos cotidianos pictografa representacin mediante smbolos ideografa y la reproduccin de slabas y letras. Los ms antiguos vestigios de escritura se encuentran, hacia finales del IV milenio a. C., en el Antiguo Egipto, con jeroglficos, y la antigua Mesopotamia, mediante signos cuneiformes escritura cuneiforme utilizaban una varilla con seccin triangular, que al hendir en placas de arcilla, dejaba una marca en forma de cua. La usaron los sumerios, acadios, asirios, hititas, persas, babilonios etc. La escritura egipcia, que perdur ms de tres milenios, mediante jeroglficos, representaba ideas abstractas, objetos, palabras, slabas, letras y nmeros. Evolucion en las escrituras hiertica y demtica. Otros pueblos, como los hititas y los aztecas tambin tuvieron tipos propios de escritura. La escritura china ms antigua que se conoce son 5. C. en el yacimiento de Xiaotun, en la provincia de Henan. Pero los primeros libros reconocibles de China corresponden al siglo VI a. C., los jiance o jiandu, rollos de finas tiras de bamb o madera grabados con tinta indeleble y atados con cordel. Estos textos servan principalmente a causas institucionales, era la obra de funcionarios civiles o militares. Desde Confucio en adelante 5. C. los libros se convirtieron en importantes instrumentos de aprendizaje, se escribieron tratados de filosofa, medicina, astronoma y cartografa. En el perodo de los reinos combatientes 4. C. La seda se us mucho como soporte para escribir. La tela era ligera, resistente al clima hmedo, absorba bien la tinta y proporcionaba al texto un fondo blanco, sin embargo era mucho ms cara que el bamb, es por esto que en ocasiones se haca una copia en bamb antes de grabarse en seda los textos importantes. La invencin del papel segn la tradicin china, se atribuye a un eunuco de la corte imperial llamado Cai Lin en el 1. C. Usando nuevos ingredientes trapos viejos, camo, corteza de rbol y redes de pescar cre un mtodo de fabricacin de papel muy similar al que se usa hoy en da. Pero el papel tard cientos de aos en reemplazar al bamb y la seda, fue hasta finales del siglo II d. C. que la corte imperial lo us en cantidades importantes. Esta innovacin no se propag fuera de China hasta el 6. C. aproximadamente, y alcanz Europa a travs de Espaa hasta el siglo XII. A mediados del siglo VIII los chinos inventaron la impresin xilogrfica, o el grabado en madera, y la necesidad de reproducir un gran nmero de textos e imgenes budistas, calendarios, manuales de adivinacin y diccionarios promovi una rpida y temprana propagacin de la xilografa. El primer libro impreso chino que se ha encontrado es el Sutra del diamante del 8. C. Los impresores chinos crearon los tipos mviles hacia el siglo XI, el escritor chino Chen Kua 1. Mengshi Pitan, segn el escritor el herrero Jen. Tsung de la dinasta de los Song del norte entre 1. Tambin se le atribuye la creacin de una mesa giratoria para guardar los caracteres, esta tcnica se llamaba tipografa tablearia. Hacia el 1. 30. 0 Wang Tcheng, un tcnico agrnomo, emplaz la arcilla por madera de azufaifo, que era mucho ms dura. Pero este avance no revolucion la imprenta hasta el punto que lo hizo Gutenberg en Europa 4. A diferencia de las lenguas europeas, el chino escrito requiere miles de caracteres nicos, lo que hace mucho ms eficaz los bloques de madera individuales que los enormes conjuntos de tipos reutilizables. En contraste con el declive de las artes de los escribas en occidente en los siglos que siguieron a la creacin de la imprenta de tipos mviles, la caligrafa china conserv su prestigio, era un arte. No obstante, a finales del siglo XV, China haba producido ms libros que el resto del mundo junto. Los rabes aprendieron la tcnica para fabricar papel de sus contactos con China en el siglo VIII, y este se introdujo en Europa en el siglo XII a travs de la Espaa musulmana. La obra xilogrfica ms antigua encontrada hasta nuestros das es el Dharani Sutra de Corea, datado en el 7. C., aunque no se sabe quin fue el inventor de la xilografa los chinos y coreanos fueron los que impulsaron la impresin xilogrfica, principalmente para editar textos religiosos. El budismo chino y coreano fue el vehculo que trasmiti la xilografa a Japn. Pero Corea realiz muchos otros avances que revolucionaron la manera de imprimir y en consecuencia el libro. Entre 1. 23. 4 y 1.